The Mark of a Criminal Record: Unpacking Stigma and Barriers to Reentry
Corresponding Author(s) : Jennifer Miller
Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Vol. 2 No. 2 (2025): April
Abstract
A criminal record brings about substantial reentry obstacles for formerly incarcerated persons, which continues to fuel systemic marginalization and inequality. This review combines existing literature to analyze the various challenges faced by this group, such as workplace discrimination, social rejection, and institutional impediments. The paper uses research from multiple fields to detail how criminal record stigma affects psychological well-being, social dynamics, and structural systems during the reentry process. Research shows that stigma exists prominently in both societal views and organizational systems while exerting a greater negative impact on marginalized communities such as racial minorities, women, and people from low-income backgrounds. Despite the potential shown by reentry programs and policy changes like “Ban the Box” and expungement laws to decrease stigma, they frequently face challenges because of inadequate funding and scaling issues, alongside unexpected outcomes like heightened racial discrimination. The review highlights the critical need for systematic reform to tackle stigma origins and support fair reentry into society. This article augments social sciences and humanities by pointing out literature gaps, including an absence of longitudinal studies and intersectionality research while suggesting directions for future research. The article provides practical strategies for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers that highlight the necessity of integrated methods combining personal support services with community involvement and policy modification to decrease stigma and support effective reentry.
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- Agan, A., & Starr, S. (2018). Ban the Box, criminal records, and racial discrimination: A field experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 133(1), 191–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx028
- Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press.
- Bushway, S. D., & Apel, R. (2012). A signaling perspective on employment-based reentry programming. Criminology & Public Policy, 11(1), 21–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00786.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00786.x
- Clear, T. R. (2007). Imprisoning communities: How mass incarceration makes disadvantaged neighborhoods worse. Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195305791.001.0001
- Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139–167.
- Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Prentice-Hall.
- Harding, D. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Wyse, J. J. B. (2019). On the outside: Prisoner reentry and reintegration. University of Chicago Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226607788.001.0001
- Holzer, H. J., Raphael, S., & Stoll, M. A. (2006). Perceived criminality, criminal background checks, and the racial hiring practices of employers. The Journal of Law and Economics, 49(2), 451–480. https://doi.org/10.1086/501089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/501089
- Latessa, E. J., & Lowenkamp, C. (2005). What works in reducing recidivism? University of St. Thomas Law Journal, 3(3), 521–535.
- LeBel, T. P. (2012). Invisible stripes? Formerly incarcerated persons’ perceptions of stigma. Deviant Behavior, 33(2), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2010.538365 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2010.538365
- Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363–385. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363
- Pager, D. (2003). The mark of a criminal record. American Journal of Sociology, 108(5), 937–975. https://doi.org/10.1086/374403 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/374403
- Pager, D., Western, B., & Bonikowski, B. (2009). Discrimination in a low-wage labor market: A field experiment. American Sociological Review, 74(5), 777–799. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400505 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400505
- Richie, B. E. (2012). Arrested justice: Black women, violence, and America’s prison nation. NYU Press.
- Travis, J., Western, B., & Redburn, S. (Eds.). (2014). The growth of incarceration in the United States: Exploring causes and consequences. National Academies Press.
- Visher, C. A., & Travis, J. (2003). Transitions from prison to community: Understanding individual pathways. Annual Review of Sociology, 29(1), 89–113. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.095931 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.095931
- Wakefield, S., & Uggen, C. (2010). Incarceration and stratification. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 387–406. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551
- Western, B. (2018). Homeward: Life in the year after prison. Russell Sage Foundation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/9781610448710
References
Agan, A., & Starr, S. (2018). Ban the Box, criminal records, and racial discrimination: A field experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 133(1), 191–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx028
Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press.
Bushway, S. D., & Apel, R. (2012). A signaling perspective on employment-based reentry programming. Criminology & Public Policy, 11(1), 21–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00786.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00786.x
Clear, T. R. (2007). Imprisoning communities: How mass incarceration makes disadvantaged neighborhoods worse. Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195305791.001.0001
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139–167.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Prentice-Hall.
Harding, D. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Wyse, J. J. B. (2019). On the outside: Prisoner reentry and reintegration. University of Chicago Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226607788.001.0001
Holzer, H. J., Raphael, S., & Stoll, M. A. (2006). Perceived criminality, criminal background checks, and the racial hiring practices of employers. The Journal of Law and Economics, 49(2), 451–480. https://doi.org/10.1086/501089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/501089
Latessa, E. J., & Lowenkamp, C. (2005). What works in reducing recidivism? University of St. Thomas Law Journal, 3(3), 521–535.
LeBel, T. P. (2012). Invisible stripes? Formerly incarcerated persons’ perceptions of stigma. Deviant Behavior, 33(2), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2010.538365 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2010.538365
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363–385. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363
Pager, D. (2003). The mark of a criminal record. American Journal of Sociology, 108(5), 937–975. https://doi.org/10.1086/374403 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/374403
Pager, D., Western, B., & Bonikowski, B. (2009). Discrimination in a low-wage labor market: A field experiment. American Sociological Review, 74(5), 777–799. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400505 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400505
Richie, B. E. (2012). Arrested justice: Black women, violence, and America’s prison nation. NYU Press.
Travis, J., Western, B., & Redburn, S. (Eds.). (2014). The growth of incarceration in the United States: Exploring causes and consequences. National Academies Press.
Visher, C. A., & Travis, J. (2003). Transitions from prison to community: Understanding individual pathways. Annual Review of Sociology, 29(1), 89–113. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.095931 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.095931
Wakefield, S., & Uggen, C. (2010). Incarceration and stratification. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 387–406. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551
Western, B. (2018). Homeward: Life in the year after prison. Russell Sage Foundation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/9781610448710